三个“幽灵”星系暗示暗物质是什么——以及不是什么

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三个“幽灵”星系暗示暗物质是什么——以及不是什么

内容来源:https://www.quantamagazine.org/triplet-of-ghostly-galaxies-hints-at-what-dark-matter-is-and-isnt-20261014/

内容总结:

距地球约6500万光年处,三个星系看上去颇为异常。它们并非光芒四射的旋涡,而是被稀疏恒星微弱照亮的暗淡天体。“它们有一种幽灵般的外观,”耶鲁大学天体物理学家迈克尔·凯姆说。而这还不是它们最奇特之处。

暗物质是维系宇宙最大结构的不可见胶水。它牵引普通可见物质向其聚集,使恒星得以形成,并防止星系中布满恒星的旋臂飞散。“几乎所有星系都由暗物质主导,”伦敦国王学院理论物理学家夏姆·巴拉吉说。

但这三个被称为DF2、DF4和DF9的弥散星系却让天文学家大为震惊。研究人员利用一组望远镜,以恒星运动为代理来估算其质量,结果发现这三个星系都几乎没有暗物质。相反,仅有极少量的普通物质独自锻造出了它们为数不多的恒星。这些打破常规的星系究竟是如何形成的?

2026年6月发表在《天体物理学杂志》上的一篇论文提出了一个可能的解释。很久以前,两个普通星系发生了碰撞。它们的普通物质——气体和尘埃——旋转翻滚并聚集成团。但暗物质径直穿过,继续前行,如同幽灵穿墙而过。这场宇宙碰撞遗留物造就了三个新星系,每一个都失去了暗物质,每一个都只能艰难地试图形成新一批恒星。

这对许多专家来说是一个令人信服的解释——关键在于,它或许能告诉我们一些关于暗物质之谜的信息。

一些科学家提出,尚未被直接探测到的暗物质可能并不存在。相反,他们认为对我们对引力理解的一点修正或许就能解释宇宙的各种特征。

这些古怪的星系给这一想法泼了冷水。“这所表明的是,暗物质……不仅仅是引力的修正,”该新研究的作者之一凯姆说。如果你将普通物质与暗物质分离,你会预期缺乏暗物质的星系将难以形成恒星——而DF2、DF4和DF9正是如此。

这表明,正如许多人一段时间以来所怀疑的那样,暗物质是一种物理实体。“暗物质的缺失,在某种意义上,正是暗物质存在的证据,这颇具讽刺意味,”巴拉吉说。

暗物质幽灵

暗物质究竟是什么?自20世纪30年代天文学家弗里茨·兹威基正式提出这一概念——并于20世纪70年代由天文学家薇拉·鲁宾进一步发展——以来,宇宙学家和天体物理学家一直在提出他们最看好的候选者。它会不会是一种隐秘的中微子?它会不会是所谓的弱相互作用大质量粒子(WIMPs)?一些人甚至认为它可能是小到单个原子、与宇宙同龄的原初黑洞。

“我们不知道哪种暗物质候选者是正确的,”加州大学欧文分校粒子物理学家丹尼尔·怀特森说。无论它是什么,它都尚未被探测到。但“有大量独立的证据表明暗物质是物质。”

暗物质占宇宙的27%——占所有物质的85%——它与引力相互作用。如果仅靠普通物质的引力,快速旋转星系边缘的恒星将逃逸到太空中。仅靠普通物质也难以足够紧密地聚集在一起形成恒星。暗物质似乎还能扭曲空间本身,在被称为引力透镜的过程中使光线绕过天体弯曲。

“没有暗物质就不会有星系,”伦敦大学学院物理学家查姆考尔·加格说。“有没有一种方法能在最初就没有暗物质的情况下演化出星系?我们的理解是不能。”

因此,当DF2于2018年被发现时,天文学家不太清楚该如何看待它。这个星系大小与银河系大致相同,但恒星数量少了200倍,亮度也暗得多。心存疑虑的科学家利用夏威夷凯克天文台追踪这些恒星的运动来估算其总质量。他们发现,即使对这样一个恒星匮乏的星系来说,它也过于轻了:它似乎所含的暗物质最多比预期少400倍,使DF2成为有史以来发现的第一个暗物质匮乏的星系。

2019年,他们观测到了DF4,另一个缺乏暗物质的幽灵星系。2026年,科学家宣布第三个星系DF9加入了这一行列。它的质量约为1亿个太阳的质量,这与仅含普通物质相符。如果它也充满暗物质,其质量将大100倍。

这三个薄纱般的星系竟然排列成一条线、彼此为邻,这没有逃过天体物理学家的注意,他们开始围绕一个起源故事形成共识。

暗物质目前已知仅通过引力相互作用;尚无有力证据表明它与其他基本力(如电磁力)相互作用。如果两个典型星系正面碰撞,暗物质几乎不会经历摩擦或阻力,会继续飞速穿过。但普通物质通过全部四种基本力相互作用,会纠缠在一起。

“一个类比是两名骑士进行长矛比武,骑士和他们的长矛碰撞后可能堆倒在地,而他们的马则继续全速奔跑,”圣何塞州立大学天文学家亚伦·罗曼诺夫斯基说。

修改引力论的麻烦

几位独立专家认同凯姆及其同事讲述的故事。“这非常有说服力,”怀特森说。

这让人想起子弹星团,即38亿光年外两个巨大的星系集合体,它们也在远古时期发生了碰撞。这场毁灭性的碰撞最近被詹姆斯·韦布空间望远镜观测到,其质量分布混乱,只有当暗物质和普通物质在碰撞中被撕裂分离时才说得通。

尽管这种分离在DF2、DF4和DF9中看得更为清晰,但并非所有人都认同分离是如何发生的。

伦敦大学学院理论天体物理学家吴健华指出,这三个星系并未展现出星系碰撞后预期会看到的任何流体状、纤细的特征。他认为,在这种情况下,DF2、DF4和DF9是穿过了一大群大质量星系。这个庞大的群体在这三个星系不幸的旅程中剥夺了它们所有的暗物质。

凯斯西储大学天文学家、修改引力理论的长期支持者斯泰西·麦高持更为怀疑的态度。“我不清楚其形成机制是什么,”他说。远古碰撞“是一个合理的起源故事,尽管是一个特殊的故事。如果事情就是这样发生的,那么其余的就顺理成章了。”换句话说:如果这些星系是在暗物质被夺走时形成的,那么暗物质是一种物理物质就说得通了。

“但问题是:事情就是这样发生的吗?”他继续说道。“我不相信这是唯一可能的方式。”在没有确定其起源故事的情况下,麦高认为不可能对暗物质本身的性质做出任何断言。

不过,大多数专家看不出DF2、DF4和DF9如何在暗物质不是物理实体的情况下存在,即使这三个星系的起源尚可争论。“很难解释如果没有类似暗物质的东西,你怎么能得到这样的星系自行演化出来,”加格说。

这使得这个星系三胞胎对MOND——即修改牛顿动力学——来说是个坏消息,这是物理学家莫尔德海·米尔格罗姆于1983年提出的暗物质替代方案。“MOND说:如果只有可见物质,但它的引力运作方式与我们想的不同呢?”怀特森解释道。

MOND意味着,当物体经历极弱的引力牵引时——例如,当两颗恒星相距极远时——引力的衰减程度不如科学家所认为的那样大。其支持者认为,这可以解释为什么旋转星系无需来自暗物质的额外引力源就能保持在一起。

暗物质长期以来一直是宇宙学家青睐的理论,因为MOND“始终无法真正解释一切,”加格说。他解释说,MOND在2015年遭受了重大打击,当时位于美国的激光干涉引力波天文台(LIGO)首次探测到了引力波——宇宙结构中的涟漪。科学家发现这些波在巨大距离上以光速向各个方向传播,这意味着引力在整个宇宙中以一致的、未经修改的方式运作。

DF2、DF4和DF9用暗物质解释也比试图调整引力机制更为优雅。“通过碰撞之类的方式移除物质——冷暗物质——比关闭一条自然定律要容易,”巴拉吉说。

“我认为有替代理论和公开辩论是好事,也是健康的,”怀特森说。“但我们也应该坦率地看待理论是否与数据相符。MOND不符。”

暗物质的身份仍然困扰着我们。但这些星系可以说是对其日益不受欢迎的竞争者的又一记棺材钉。

中文翻译:

“幽灵”星系三重奏暗示暗物质是什么——以及不是什么

引言

距地球约6500万光年处,三个星系看起来不太对劲。它们不是光芒四射的旋涡,而是被稀疏恒星微弱照亮的苍白天体。“它们有一种幽灵般的外表,”耶鲁大学天体物理学家迈克尔·凯姆说。而这甚至还不是它们最诡异的地方。

暗物质是维系宇宙中最大结构的不可见胶水。它将普通可见物质吸引向自己,使恒星得以形成,并防止星系中布满恒星的旋臂飞散出去。“几乎所有星系都由暗物质主导,”伦敦国王学院理论物理学家希亚姆·巴拉吉说。

但这三个弥散星系——被称为DF2、DF4和DF9——让天文学家大为震惊。研究人员使用一组望远镜,以恒星运动作为替代指标来估算其质量,结果发现这三个星系都几乎没有暗物质。相反,仅凭极少量的普通物质就足以铸就它们那为数不多的恒星。这些打破常规的星系究竟是如何形成的?

2026年6月发表在《天体物理学杂志》上的一篇论文提出了一个可能的解释。从前,两个普通星系相撞。它们的普通物质——气体和尘埃——旋转翻涌并聚集成团。但暗物质径直穿过,继续前行,如同幽灵穿墙而过。这场宇宙碰撞留下了三个新星系,每一个都失去了暗物质,每一个都只能艰难地孕育新一批恒星。

这对许多专家来说是一个令人信服的解释——关键在于,它或许能告诉我们一些关于暗物质之谜的信息。

一些科学家提出,尚未被直接探测到的暗物质可能并不存在。相反,他们建议,对我们对引力理解的一处修正或许就能解释宇宙的各种特征。

这些奇异的星系给这一想法泼了冷水。“这所表明的是,暗物质……不仅仅是引力的修正,”该新研究的作者之一凯姆说。如果你将普通物质与暗物质分离开来,你会预期那些缺乏暗物质的星系将难以形成恒星——而DF2、DF4和DF9正是如此。

这表明,正如许多人一段时间以来所怀疑的那样,暗物质是一种实实在在的东西。“暗物质的缺席,在某种意义上,正是暗物质存在的证据,这很讽刺,”巴拉吉说。

暗影幽灵

暗物质究竟是什么?自从天文学家弗里茨·兹威基在20世纪30年代正式提出它——并由天文学家薇拉·鲁宾在20世纪70年代进一步发展——以来,宇宙学家和天体物理学家一直在提出他们最看好的候选者。它会不会是一种隐秘的中微子?它会不会是所谓的弱相互作用大质量粒子,简称WIMP?一些人甚至认为,它可能是原始黑洞,小到单个原子,古老如宇宙本身。

“我们不知道哪种暗物质候选者是正确的,”加州大学欧文分校粒子物理学家丹尼尔·怀特森说。无论它是什么,它尚未被探测到。但“有很多独立的证据线索表明暗物质是物质。”

暗物质占宇宙的27%——占所有物质的85%——并与引力相互作用。如果仅靠普通物质的引力,快速旋转星系边缘的恒星会逃逸到太空中。仅靠普通物质很难紧密聚集成团以形成恒星。暗物质似乎还能扭曲空间本身,使光线在物体周围弯曲,这一过程被称为引力透镜。

“没有暗物质,你就不会有星系,”伦敦大学学院物理学家查姆考尔·加格说。“有没有一种方式能在最初就没有暗物质的情况下演化出星系?我们的理解说是没有的。”

因此,当DF2在2018年被发现时,天文学家不太清楚该如何理解它。这个星系大小与银河系大致相当,但恒星数量少了200倍,因此暗淡得多。心存疑虑的科学家利用夏威夷的凯克天文台追踪这些恒星的运动来估算其总质量。他们发现,即使对这样一个恒星匮乏的星系来说,它也属于轻量级:它似乎所含的暗物质最多比他们预期的少400倍,这使DF2成为有史以来发现的第一个暗物质匮乏的星系。

2019年,他们观测了DF4,另一个暗物质稀少的幽灵星系。2026年,科学家宣布第三个星系DF9也加入了这一行列。它的质量约为1亿个太阳,这与仅含普通物质的情况相符。如果它也充满暗物质,它的质量会是现在的100倍。

这三个薄纱般的星系竟然排列成一条线,彼此为邻,这没有逃过天体物理学家的注意,他们开始逐渐形成一个关于其起源的共识。

目前已知暗物质仅通过引力相互作用;尚无有力证据表明它与其他基本力(如电磁力)相互作用。如果两个典型星系正面相撞,暗物质几乎不会感受到摩擦或阻力,会继续高速飞驰而过。但普通物质通过全部四种基本力相互作用,会纠缠在一起。

“一个类比是两名骑士进行马上比武,骑士和他们的长矛相撞,可能被摔成一堆,而他们的马则继续全速奔跑,”圣何塞州立大学天文学家亚伦·罗曼诺夫斯基说。

修正引力理论的麻烦

几位独立专家接受了凯姆及其同事所讲述的故事。“这非常有说服力,”怀特森说。

这让人想起子弹星团,那是38亿光年外两个巨大的星系集合体,也在亿万年前相撞。这场毁灭性的碰撞——最近由詹姆斯·韦布空间望远镜观测到——呈现出混乱的质量分布,只有暗物质和普通物质在碰撞中被撕裂开来才能解释得通。

尽管这种分离在DF2、DF4和DF9中看得更为清晰,但并非所有人都认同这种分离是如何发生的。

伦敦大学学院理论天体物理学家吴健华指出,这组三重星系并未展现出人们在星系碰撞后所预期看到的任何流体状、缕缕丝絮般的特征。他认为,在这种情况下,DF2、DF4和DF9是穿过了一个由大质量星系组成的大星系群。这个庞大的乌合之众在这三兄弟命运多舛的旅程中剥夺了它们所有的暗物质。

凯斯西储大学天文学家、修正引力理论的长期支持者斯泰西·麦高夫则更为怀疑。“我不清楚其形成机制是什么,”他说。远古碰撞“是一个合理的起源故事,尽管是一个特殊的故事。如果事情就是这样发生的,那么其余的就顺理成章了。”换言之:如果这些星系是在其暗物质被夺走时诞生的,那么暗物质是一种实体物质就说得通了。

“但问题是:事情就是这样发生的吗?”他接着说。“我并不认为这是唯一可能发生的方式。”在不确定它们起源故事的情况下,麦高夫认为不可能对暗物质本身的性质下任何结论。

不过,大多数专家看不出,如果暗物质不是一种实体物质,DF2、DF4和DF9如何能够存在,即便这三者的起源尚可争论。“很难解释如果没有类似暗物质的东西,你怎么能得到这样自行演化出来的东西,”加格说。

这使得这个星系三重奏对MOND——即修正牛顿动力学——来说是个坏消息。MOND是物理学家莫尔德海·米尔格罗姆于1983年提出的暗物质替代理论。“MOND说的是:如果只有可见物质,但它的引力运作方式与我们想的不同呢?”怀特森解释道。

MOND意味着,当物体经历极弱的引力时——例如两颗恒星相距极远时——引力并不会像科学家认为的那样衰减得那么快。其支持者认为,这或许能解释为什么旋转的星系不需要来自暗物质的额外引力源就能保持完整。

暗物质长期以来一直是宇宙学家青睐的理论,因为MOND“始终无法真正解释一切,”加格说。他解释说,MOND在2015年遭受了重大打击,当时位于美国的激光干涉引力波天文台(LIGO)首次探测到引力波——宇宙时空结构中的涟漪。科学家发现,这些波在巨大距离上向各个方向以光速传播,这意味着引力在整个宇宙中以一致、未经修正的方式运作。

DF2、DF4和DF9用暗物质来解释也比用调整引力机制的努力来解释更为优雅。“通过碰撞之类的方式移除物质——冷暗物质,比关掉一条自然定律要容易得多,”巴拉吉说。

“我认为拥有替代理论和公开辩论是好事,也是健康的,”怀特森说。“但我们也应坦率地看待该理论是否吻合数据。MOND并不吻合。”

暗物质的真面目仍然让我们捉摸不透。但这些星系可以说是给其日益不受欢迎的竞争者又钉上了一颗棺材钉。

英文来源:

Triplet of ‘Ghostly’ Galaxies Hints at What Dark Matter Is — and Isn’t
Introduction
About 65 million light-years from Earth, three galaxies don’t look quite right. They aren’t whirlpools bursting with light, but pallid objects dimly illuminated by a smattering of stars. “They have this ghostly appearance,” said Michael Keim, an astrophysicist at Yale University. And this isn’t even the weirdest thing about them.
Dark matter is the invisible glue that keeps the largest structures in the cosmos together. It draws ordinary, visible matter toward it, allowing stars to form and keeping the stelliferous limbs of galaxies from flying off. “Almost all galaxies are dominated by dark matter,” said Shyam Balaji, a theoretical physicist at King’s College London.
But these three diffuse galaxies, known as DF2, DF4, and DF9, have left astronomers stunned. After using a suite of telescopes to estimate their masses — using the motions of their stars as a proxy — the researchers found that all three have little dark matter. Instead, a pittance of ordinary matter alone must have forged their small selection of stars. How could these rule-breaking galaxies have formed?
A paper published in June 2026 in The Astrophysical Journal offers a potential solution. Once upon a time, two regular galaxies collided. Their ordinary matter — their gas and dust — swirled about and got clumped up. But the dark matter passed right through and continued on, like a specter passing through a wall. The cosmic pileup left behind three new galaxies, each bereft of dark matter, each left to struggle to form a new batch of stars.
It’s a convincing explanation for many experts — one that, crucially, may tell us something about the mystery of dark matter.
Some scientists have suggested that dark matter, which has yet to be directly detected, may not exist. Instead, they propose that a tweak to our understanding of the gravitational force might explain various features of the universe.
These bizarre galaxies pour cold water on that idea. “What this is showing is that dark matter is … not just a modification of gravity,” said Keim, who is an author of the new study. If you segregate ordinary matter from dark matter, you’d expect that the dark matter–lacking galaxies would struggle to form stars — and that’s what DF2, DF4, and DF9 show.
That suggests, as many have suspected for some time, that dark matter is a physical thing. “The absence of dark matter is, in a way, some evidence of dark matter, which is ironic,” Balaji said.
Dark Ghosts
What, exactly, is dark matter? Ever since it was formally proposed by the astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930s — and built upon in the 1970s by the astronomer Vera Rubin — cosmologists and astrophysicists have been putting forward their best candidates. Could it be a stealthy type of neutrino? Might it be so-called weakly interacting massive particles, or WIMPs? Some have even opined that it could be primordial black holes as small as individual atoms and as old as the universe itself.
“We don’t know which dark matter candidate is the right one,” said Daniel Whiteson, a particle physicist at the University of California, Irvine. Whatever it is, it has yet to be detected. But “there’s a lot of independent lines of evidence that dark matter is matter.”
Dark matter, which makes up 27% of the universe — and 85% of all matter —interacts with gravity. If it were down to the gravitational pull of ordinary matter alone, stars on the edges of rapidly spinning galaxies would escape into space. Ordinary matter alone would struggle to clump together tightly enough to form stars. Dark matter also seems to warp space itself, bending light around objects in a process known as gravitational lensing.
“You wouldn’t get galaxies without dark matter,” said Chamkaur Ghag, a physicist at University College London. “Is there a way of evolving the galaxies without dark matter in the first place? Our understanding says no.”
So when DF2 was discovered in 2018, astronomers didn’t quite know what to make of it. The galaxy is roughly the same size as the Milky Way, but with 200 times fewer stars, it’s considerably dimmer. Suspicious, scientists used the Keck Observatory in Hawai‘i to track the motions of those stars to estimate its total mass. They discovered that, even for such a star-deficient galaxy, it was lightweight: It seemed to contain, at most, 400 times less dark matter than they would expect, making DF2 the first dark matter–deficient galaxy ever spotted.
In 2019, they observed DF4, another phantom galaxy with a dearth of dark matter. And in 2026, scientists announced that a third, DF9, had joined the club. It contains the mass of roughly 100 million suns, which is consistent with having only ordinary matter. If it were also packed with dark matter, it would be 100 times more massive.
That all three gossamer galaxies existed along a line, as neighbors, didn’t escape the attention of astrophysicists, who began to coalesce around an origin story.
Dark matter is only known to act with the gravitational force; there’s no compelling evidence yet that it interacts with other fundamental forces, like electromagnetism. If two typical galaxies met in a head-on collision, the dark matter would experience very little friction, or drag, and would keep on rocketing by. But ordinary matter, which interacts using all four fundamental forces, would get all tangled up.
“An analogy would be two knights jousting, where the knights and their lances collide and may be thrown to the ground in a heap, while their horses keep on running at full speed,” said Aaron Romanowsky, an astronomer at San José State University.
Trouble for Modified Gravity
Several independent experts buy the tale spun by Keim and his colleagues. “It’s very convincing,” Whiteson said.
It’s reminiscent of the Bullet Cluster, two massive collections of galaxies 3.8 billion light-years away that also collided eons ago. This destruction derby, which was recently observed by the James Webb Space Telescope, has a messy distribution of mass that only makes sense if dark matter and ordinary matter got torn asunder during the collision.
Although this kind of segregation can be seen with greater clarity in DF2, DF4, and DF9, not everyone agrees on how the separation took place.
Kinwah Wu, a theoretical astrophysicist at University College London, noted that the triplet does not exhibit any of the fluid, wispy features that one would expect to see after a galactic collision. He suggests that, in this case, DF2, DF4, and DF9 were passing through a large group of massive galaxies. This outsize rabble then stripped the triplet of all their dark matter during their ill-fated voyage.
Stacy McGaugh, an astronomer at Case Western Reserve University and a longtime proponent of modified-gravity theories, is more skeptical. “It’s not clear to me what the formation mechanism is,” he said. An ancient collision “is a plausible origin story, albeit an exceptional one. If that’s what’s happened, then the rest follows.” In other words: If these galaxies were created when their dark matter was stolen away, then it makes sense that dark matter is a physical substance.
“But the question is: Is that what happened?” he continued. “And I’m not convinced that that’s the only way that can happen.” Without definitively knowing their origin story, McGaugh doesn’t think it’s possible to say anything about the nature of dark matter itself.
Most experts, though, cannot see how DF2, DF4, and DF9 could exist without dark matter being a physical thing, even if the trio’s genesis can be debated. “It’s hard to explain how you’d get something like this evolving by itself without something like dark matter,” Ghag said.
That makes this galactic trio bad news for MOND, or modified Newtonian dynamics, an alternative to dark matter proposed in 1983 by the physicist Mordehai Milgrom. “MOND says: What if there’s only visible matter, but its gravity works differently than we thought?” Whiteson explained.
MOND implies that, when objects are experiencing a very weak gravitational pull — for example, when two stars are separated by extreme distances — the gravitational force doesn’t dwindle as much as scientists think. That could explain why spinning galaxies can be held together without needing an extra source of gravity from dark matter, its proponents have argued.
Dark matter has long been the favored theory for cosmologists, as MOND “could never really explain everything,” Ghag said. He explained that MOND suffered a significant blow in 2015 when the U.S.-based Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, or LIGO, detected gravitational waves — ripples in the fabric of the universe — for the first time. Scientists found that these waves move at the speed of light in all directions over huge distances, which implies that gravity works in a consistent, unmodified way throughout the cosmos.
DF2, DF4, and DF9 are also more elegantly explained by dark matter than by attempts to adjust the mechanics of gravity. “It’s easier to remove matter, cold dark matter, through something like a collision, than it is to turn off a law of nature,” Balaji said.
“I think it’s fine and healthy to have alternative theories and open debate,” Whiteson said. “But let’s also be frank about whether the theory fits the data. MOND does not.”
The identity of dark matter still eludes us. But these galaxies are arguably another nail in the coffin of its increasingly unpopular competitor.

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